The present invention relates to an electrode system, and particularly to a microelectrode system suitable for use in preparative and analytical chemistry.
Microelectrode systems are used extensively in research and are so named because their dimensions are on the micrometre scale. Such microelectrode systems provide very high field gradients and diffusion characteristics due to their small size. In addition, these types of microelectrode systems have found some limited commercial utility in biomedical applications and are typically used in, for example, blood gas analysis.
Reliable operation of microelectrode systems for preparative electrochemistry and electroanalytical techniques depends critically upon their geometry and the reproducibility of their manufacture. The performance of such a system generally improves as the dimensions of the system are reduced which is why microelectrode and even nanometre scale microelectrode systems are often desirable.
A disadvantage of known microelectrode systems of this type is that the reproducibility and reliability of the fabrication process and the geometries which may be adopted become more limited as the scale is reduced.
The present invention seeks to provide an improved microelectrode system which is more straightforwardly and reproducibly manufactured irrespective of dimensionality.
Thus viewed from one aspect the present invention provides a microelectrode system comprising a laminated structure having at least one conducting layer capable of acting as an electrode, at least one dielectric layer, an aperture formed in the laminated structure, and contact means for allowing electrical contact with at least one conducting layer.
As the dimensions of the microelectrode system of the invention are extremely small, the fields generated within the laminated structure are exceptional and enable highly efficient measurement and/or modification of materials entering into or passing through the system. The laminated structure is simple to manufacture to extremely high tolerances. In addition, the structure has extremely low dead volume thereby considerably simplifying physical sampling regimes.
The aperture may be in the form of a hole which extends through the laminated structure and is open at both ends. Alternatively, the aperture may be in the form of a well having an open end and an opposite end being closed to form a well bottom. In both embodiments, the internal wall of the hole or well formed in the microelectrode system may be uniform (eg substantially tubular) or non-uniform to provide non-uniform fields if desired. Materials may be passed into or through the laminated structure (via the aperture) where inter alia synthesis, analysis or sequencing as desired takes place.
The microelectrode system of the invention may comprise a plurality of apertures (eg holes or wells) formed within the laminated structure and spaced apart from one another. Each hole or well may be individually addressable, in which case each hole or well may have a different function. Alternatively, groups of holes or wells (or the totality of the holes or wells) in a structure may be addressed in parallel thereby enabling amplification of signals and parallel material processing. This latter system may be suitable for larger scale synthetic applications.
In one embodiment, the microelectrode system comprises at least one pair of substantially collinear wells having a common closed end. Particularly preferably, the microelectrode system comprises a plurality of such pairs.
At least one conducting layer of the microelectrode system of the invention acts as an electrode on the internal wall of the hole or well. The or each electrode may be treated to provide appropriate functionality (eg pH measurement or surface treatment for electro-catalysis) by known chemical and/or electrochemical and/or physical modification techniques.
The laminated structure may comprise a plurality of conducting and a plurality of dielectric layers. Preferably consecutive conducting layers are separated, by dielectric layers. Particularly preferably, a dielectric layer is uppermost in the laminated structure. In one embodiment, the laminated structure preferably comprises three conducting layers. Electrical fields are generated between the layers forming the laminated structure and within the aperture to provide the desired conditions.
Typically, the electrodes are formed from a noble metal, preferably gold. Gold may be sputtered onto a polymer which is capable of acting both as the mechanical support and as the dielectric layer. Any form of polymer or other dielectric material which is capable of acting as a support may be used such as for example polyethylenetetraphthalate (PET). Other specialised materials such as ion exchange polymers (eg cation doped polystyrene sulphonate) may be used for specialised applications.
Advantageously, the or each dielectric layer is made from a rubbery material. A suitable material is a polymer which swells when molecules of (for example) water enter the solid state matrix. During use of the microelectrode system, the rubbery dielectric layers separating pairs of conducting layers swell thereby changing the inter-electrode distance. Thus, the interspaced electrodes may be interrogated to determine the degree of swelling of the dielectric layers as a function of the measured resistance.
In more complex systems, material may be grown between the or each conducting layer and the or each rubbery dielectric layer, and the stress placed on the material as a consequence of the swelling of the or each dielectric layer may be measured.
A reagent loaded or functionalised dielectric layer may be used to provide additional functionality by providing ions or other materials to ensure the reproducible behaviour of subsequent systems within the structure. Ions may be conveniently provided by ion exchange resin materials. Other matrices could be employed to provide co-factors for biosensors, etc.
A specialised dielectric layer may also be used. The specialised layer may be in the form of an ion exchange resin, gel or solid electrolyte. In such a system, mass transport from one lateral region of the structure to another may be effected by inter alia osmosis, electro-osmosis, electrophoresis, electrochromatography or ion migration. Reverse flow and counter current techniques may be employed to effect changes in process flows including inter alia deionisation.
The laminated structure may be built on silicon. This has the advantage of being optically flat. Alternatively, the laminated structure may be built on a polymeric material (eg a polymeric material comprising one or more polymers).
The layers forming the laminated structure may be laid down using any one of a number of known techniques including casting, spinning, sputtering or, vapour deposition methods. The aperture may be mechanically or chemically introduced into the laminated structure. Advantageously, a micron gauge wire made of (for example) silver may be introduced into the laminated structure which wire may be etched out once the laminar structure has been completed. Alternatively, lithographic techniques or physical techniques such as laser oblation and neutron annihilation may be used. It is possible to produce highly uniform electrode layers with precise separations using such techniques allowing highly reproducible functional structures to be achieved.
The microelectrode system of the invention has many applications. For example, it may be used in the deionisation of a solution positioned on one side of a membrane forming the closed end of a well. In such a case, ions may be pumped through the microelectrode system as a consequence of a potential difference applied to electrodes on either side of the common well bottom. In such a case, the well bottom may be conveniently formed from an ion exchange material. The microelectrode may also be used in preparative electrochemistry, electroanalysis and chromatography or other separation techniques. It may also be used as a sensor.
Where the aperture is in the form of a through hole, the microelectrode system according to the present invention may be used in preparative electrochemistry. In such a case, the reactants on one side of the electrode structure are passed through the hole using (for example) a pressure gradient. As they pass through the holes, the reactants are modified by the applied electric field within each hole, either producing the product directly or generating intermediates which undergo further reaction to form the desired product.
If, for example, the microelectrode system was required to have biological functionality for use in an enzyme or antibody system, the electrodes may be formed from metal treated with an organic conducting layer to prevent the activity of the biological agent from being destroyed.
A silver conducting layer may be used which itself may be chloridised to form a silver/silver chloride reference electrode if desired.
The dimensions of the layers and hole or well forming the microelectrode system may be tailored as desired. The precise dimensions of the microelectrode system depend upon the materials used and the techniques employed to form the microelectrode system.
The diameter of the hole or well is typically in the range 0.5 to 500 microns, preferably 1 to 200 microns, particularly preferably 2 to 30 microns, especially preferably about 5 microns.
The thickness of the or each dielectric layer may be in the range 0.5 to 10000 microns, preferably 0.5 to 1000 microns, particularly preferably 1 to 1000 microns, especially preferably 1 to 60 microns, more especially preferably 1 to 10 microns. Where the dielectric is uppermost or intermediate in the laminated structure, the thickness is typically about 5 microns. Where the dielectric is on the base of the laminated structure, the thickness is typically about 55 microns.
The thickness of the or each conducting layer may be in the range 0.5 to 500 microns, preferably 1 to 100 microns, particularly preferably 1 to 10 microns, especially preferably about 3 microns.
At a location remote from the hole or well is provided a means to enable electrical contact with the or each of the conducting layers. One such means of providing electrical contact would be to slice back the outer edges of the dielectric layers thereby exposing the extreme ends of each of the conducting layers. These exposed ends allow electrical contact to be made.
When a microelectrode system according to the present invention is used in a mass transport system, the potential difference created causes diffusion of desired chemical species to the hole or well. In some cases (for whatever reason) this process is slow and the mass transport may be aided through use of inter alia a piezo-electric vibrator or an ultrasonic probe. Mass transport may be additionally controlled (where required) by conventional macroscopic means used in electrochemistry. These techniques include membrane and diffusion, wall jet/wall pipe techniques, rotation, vibration, etc. In the case of a microelectrode system having a through hole, the mass flow may additionally be controlled using differential pressure techniques.
The microelectrode system according to the invention may be in the form a substantially one-dimensional array (eg a tape) or a multi-dimensional array (eg a sheet or more complex matrix) to enable repeated measurements with single use systems.
Preferably, the microelectrode system of the invention further comprises a microheater structure incorporated into the system to control local conditions. Preferably, the microheater is in the form of a resistive element laid down using known semi-conductor techniques. The resistive element may provide localised heating.